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Logical Data Framework: Logical data framework is a systematic arrangement of data in a tabular form for easy reference. The table summarizes the major issues in project work like research questions, hypotheses, method of data collection, method of data analysis, etc. This framework is very vital in research report because it summarizes the core issues in the study thereby saving supervisors’ time from going letter by letter, line by line throughout the work before they can understand the research work and its methods. One can understand the needed information in project report by painstakingly going through the logical data framework.

Reference List: This section is not a matter of choice but a matter of necessity in order to avoid academic theft (plagiarism) and also to ensure a scholarly work. Plagiarism as we have noted is a serious academic theft. Its rule is very simple “take and give credit” to whom it is due to. Hence, some title this section bibliography while some go by name reference in their research work. The two has been often used interchangeably but they differ. A reference list contains only sources you have cited in-text (in-text citations) in your work. This means each reference cited in-text must appear in the reference list, and each reference list must be cited in-text. On the other hand, a bibliography is a list of all the sources you have consulted. This means in addition to listing the sources you cited in-text (in-text citations), you also list sources that you read or referred to in order to generate ideas on the research. A bibliography is more encompassing than reference. >

dir=" ltr">Basic rules to note inline with APA Style of reference list: 1. Alphabetize entries by the first word of the entry. Entries are double spaced and the second line of an entry is a hanging indent of a ½ inch (standard tab space). Use only initials for the first and middle names even if the full name is given. In other words, in APA style the entries are arranged alphabetically according to authors’ names. For instance, author’s surname comes first followed by initials (first and second name if there is), the year of publication, the title of the work, the place of publication and the name of the publisher. 2. Italicize titles of books, plays, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, journals, films, compact discs, and paintings. Do not put quotation marks around them. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the subtitle, if any, and any proper noun; remember to italicize the title. Enclose additional information like editor, edition, report number etc, in

dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">            Performance:      It is the distance between one’s origin and where he is currently. There is no other reliable parameter for measuring the efficiency and effectiveness of government other than the masses that are at the receiving end as the above principle has noted. The end matters a lot in performance measurement of any government. If the end is good by ensuring the greatest happiness to the greatest number, the performance is commendable and laudable.       A common sense morality demands of a leader to keep his promises to the people and make effective use of available resources. The policies and programmes of government should centre on the people which government exists to serve. When the majority of people are happy the government in place has performed well.     It is important to note that no leader can satisfy everybody honourably, even the Almighty God couldn’t satisfy Luci

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Should a Leader Fear Political Gladiators? A wise leader has little to fear from gladiators insofar as he enjoys the goodwill of the masses and few notables. Some of them are for political entertainment not for realpolitik. They are only brave and courageous among their associates, and cowards before the enemy. Since they have been defeated for the first time, to overcome them again, if they regroup, is easy if the leader has an insight to know their weaknesses and maximize on it. In a situation where a leader is not able to know how to destroy the source of their strength, the outcome of any second battle for state power may be dangerous or injurious to the leader. A wise leader should be able to know how to cut the chains of his adversaries. Their power should be drastically neutralize;, otherwise, they may constituent a major threat to societal peace. He should never show them any act of kindness because any act of kindness shown to them will be used against the leader.

Ruling Class versus Governing Ruling Class     It is paramount to note that social classes are groups of persons who are differentiated on the grounds of their social functions, and ranked on the basis of wealth control and ownership of property. These classes compete in an unequal basis in the area of production, distribution and exchange. Both ruling or guardian class and governing class belong to upper class while the masses constitute the lower class. These two classes compete on unequal basis. The ruling or guardian class is the most powerful class in any society due to their social relation to the means of production, distribution and exchange. In other words, they own the means of production (the objects of labour and the means of labour).

Method of Data Collection There are different ways information is gathered. As Ezeh (2011), noted, it tells us where (place), how (manner), who (body) and when (time) in respect of the data collection for the study. In other words, the report here is expected to emphasize where, how the data will be collected and by whom and within what time frame. Method of data collection varies by the design of the study (Ezeh 2011). Two major types of method of data collection are: > 1. Quantitative method 2. Qualitative method Data can be gathered through; qualitative or quantitative method (i.e. either through secondary or primary resources). Quantitative method is more objective, testable and reliable than qualitative method. It makes use of questionnaire, interview and other primary sources of information. The collection of data for this type of research is not always easy. It is the method commonly used in physical science or in the field research while the social scienc

Research Design As articulated in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), style involves no inherent right or wrong. It is merely a conventional way of presenting information that is designed to ease communication. Research designs have different reporting needs associated with them. Literally, design simply means to draw, lay out or plan on how to do something. According to Ezeh (2011:68), research design “is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions through which the problem of the study could be addressed”. It is a blue print of the study. A research design guides the researcher in the process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting and observing data. That is why Ezeh affirms that “it specifies the methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed to structure and solve the research problem” (Ezeh 2011:68). A good research design should be able

Methodology This constitutes the third chapter in every thesis work. Some departments more often than not caption this chapter “research methods”. Methodology and method differs notably. Methodology is a body of methods, and rules employed by a discipline while method is simply a particular procedure or technique used in a discipline. Therefore, method is just a subset of methodology. It is a particular techniques employed in a research. As rightly noted, in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), the method section describes in details how the study was conducted. Different types of studies will rely on different methodologies. Therefore, appropriate title should be “methodology” which encompasses rules and procedures. Hence, methodology encompasses systemic procedures, techniques, or mode of scientific inquiry employed for proper analysis of a phenomenon. Under this chapter we have theoretical framework, research design,

Hypothesis A hypothesis is a tentative assumption or guess made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical conclusions. In other words, it is a concessional statement that contains what researcher thinks the out come of the investigation may be.  Therefore, before a hypothesis becomes a statement of fact it must be subjected to rigorous scientific testing (testing of hypothesis). Note that hypotheses are tentative answers to research questions and research questions are drive from statement of problem.  You should note the links. There are two types of hypothesis: i. The research hypothesis ii. The statistical hypothesis. The dissimilarity between the two is mainly based on the methods of data collection. The research hypothesis adopts qualitative method of data collection while statistical hypothesis uses quantitative method of data collection.  As Ezeh (2011:39) noted “…statistical hypotheses contain statistical parameters (e.g mean, correlation coefficient

Research Questions Research questions as we have noted is drive from statement of the problems. It is like detailing statement of the problem into two or more sentences. Therefore, it should be simple as much as possible.  It serves as a guideline to a researcher. That is why Ezeh (2011: 37) notes that research questions “are posers for a study that guide the researcher’s pursuit of appropriate source of information that will lead to the emergence of the desired result of that study”. Ezeh further affirms that “the number, structure and content of research questions of a study are often determined by the problem of the study and specifically by the specific purposes of that study.”

What is Abstract in Thesis Working? An abstract is a brief summary of the contents of a work. A well prepared abstract can be the most important single paragraph (APA, 2010). As noted in the sixth edition of APA Manual, a good abstract should be: Accurate No evaluative Coherent and readable Concise Should describe the problem under investigation Study method Basic findings The conclusion Furthermore, an abstract looks like introduction but its structure differs from the latter. According Ezeh (2011:16), an abstract is a brief summary of a research report and it often used to help the reader to quickly ascertain the purpose of the study. He contends further that it focuses on the following: The statement of the problem Research questions and hypotheses addressed The research method The finding or results of the research The main conclusions and recommendations In addition it also contains a theoretical framework used in the study. Note: due to its structur

Statement of the Problem To research is to search and search again. What are we searching for? Problems and solutions…  Project research or research in general is neither carried out for its own sake nor for the fun of it but to tackle a problem. Therefore, statement of the problem of the study is like the centre of entire project research. It contains the fundamental issue on why the research is being carried out. It is from it that you draft your research questions. According to Ezeh (2011:23), statement of the problem of a study “is both the foundation on which the study is built and the steering that drives the entire process of research”. He further maintains that “statement of the problem simply means stating the problems that have been articulated by the research prior to the commencement of the study to which the expected results of the study would provide solutions”. The aim of every researcher is to find solutions of the problem that propelled him into researching.

Title Page This is the first page in a research proposal or report. After a researcher has identified problem that calls for research it has to be titled or named something which will serve as focal point. As stated in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), a title should summarize the main idea of the manuscript, author’s name (byline) and institutional affiliation identifies the location where the author conducted the research. Title page contains the following: • The full title of the work • The authors name • The department • Faculty and institution • Months and year of publication Title page should be concise as much as possible. It should not be more than twelve (12) words in length according to the sixth edition of the APA publication manual. Note that title page and cover page contain the same thing.

Citation Methods APA style requires two elements as we have noted: 1. In-text References or Citations: This is located in the text of the paper which tells the reader what information was borrowed and where it came from.  In-text references use author’s surname followed immediately by the copyright year in brackets within the sentence or provides the author's surname and copyright year in brackets at the end of the sentence before the period.  Quoting information copied word for word. Use the author's surname followed immediately by the copyright year (year of publication) in brackets and the page from which the information was copied before the quote or provide the author's surname, copyright year, and page in brackets at the end of the sentence before the period.  As stated in the sixth edition of APA Publication Manual, any quotation that is up to forty (40) or more words should be in block quotations. Display it in a freestanding block of text and omit

Citations/Documentations There are many types of citations styles like APA, Chicago, MLA, Turbian styles, etc. But the American Psychological Association (APA style) is the mostly commonly used style for research report especially in the social sciences. This is also known as triple entry style. We are going to treat it in details under reference. This style is periodically reviewed by the association in its publication (the Manual of the American Psychological Association). The latest edition is sixth edition published in 2010. Reasons for citing or documenting sources? As stated in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), when writing a paper, we often build upon the information and ideas of others. When information is borrowed from others, we must give them credit. APA requires that information be cited in two different ways namely: 1. Within the text (in-text citation) and 2. in a reference list at the end of the paper

Cultural and Religious Vigilance In some communities, the people’s socio-cultural practices may be counterproductive and inhuman to human society. They breed terrors and other outlawed practices in the name of culture and religion. A leader should be proactive enough to call any religious or cultural practices that are counterproductive to order at infant stage. If not checked at early stage, it may be difficult to curtail when it matures.

Social Vigilance Man is a social being who needs social security which leads to the realization of his humanity. The social needs of a man should never elude him. The importance of social security to man cannot be overstated. It is what makes a man a social being. A wise leader should secure his people socially to avoid other socio-political unrest. Armed security exists due to the absence of social security. Armed security which is the perversion of a social security system came into being when the social security systems collapsed under the slave owning society (early feudal system). This was when slave lords failed to provide for and protect the welfare of slaves. For that reason, slaves turned against their masters which made them (the masters) to be prone to attacks by angry slaves. The slave masters therefore, had to arm themselves against socially vulnerable slaves who may devour them.

Economic Vigilance Man’s daily activities, more often than not, are meant to meet his material (economic) needs. Life is not worth living without it. In short, it is not livable at all. It is the economic power of man that determines his societal value and social status. There is nothing like protection or immunity, especially immunity against the three basic enemies of man: disease, ignorance and poverty. Nobody truly likes a man with a depleted bank account, even his immediate family let alone his worldly pastor. No matter how holy and hard working he may be, he will never be included in any financial project or committee in his church, because he is only holy and economically disenfranchised. Therefore, the demand to meet this economic need has become inevitable. And it must be met either via legal or illegal means.       Having known this, the need for a leader and his followers to be economically vigilant is called for in order to checkmate those who want to make it by all

Economic Vigilance Man’s daily activities, more often than not, are meant to meet his material (economic) needs. Life is not worth living without it. In short, it is not livable at all. It is the economic power of man that determines his societal value and social status. There is nothing like protection or immunity, especially immunity against the three basic enemies of man: disease, ignorance and poverty. Nobody truly likes a man with a depleted bank account, even his immediate family let alone his worldly pastor. No matter how holy and hard working he may be, he will never be included in any financial project or committee in his church, because he is only holy and economically disenfranchised. Therefore, the demand to meet this economic need has become inevitable. And it must be met either via legal or illegal means.       Having known this, the need for a leader and his followers to be economically vigilant is called for in order to checkmate those who want to make it by all

Political Vigilance In human society, power tussle is endless and he who controls political power controls other powers. The need for political vigilance is very crucial to us more than others. Many eyes are in political power and if not adequately secured it may lead to other insecurities and leakages in other systems. Power is not freely given; it must be fought for even in the ecclesiastical world. After the tussle for power comes the governance by the triumphant party. And those who are defeated more often than not have to fight back indirectly in their bid to discredit the present government. Some may be pretending to be lambs, but wolves. A wise leader should be on guard always and never trust enemies or remove his eyes from them. In a society where there is lack of political vigilance, there will be other security challenges. A good leader should never slumber so that he would be able to monitor his political adversaries on daily basis. He should make use of his enormous st

Security Vigilance Security of lives and property is the primary responsibility of leaders to their people. And the main reasons they were instituted are to protect the people from dangers and provide for their social wellbeing. Only the wise leaders know that security should be pursued more in peace time than in time of adversity. An effective leader should have an insight needed at any given situation. People love that person that protects them from danger; and a good leader is someone who protects his people from danger. Human society may sometime look peaceful, but in actual sense never a time is it peaceful. Enemies abound, looking for space and any slightest opportunity to strike. A leader who dozes is not equal to the task.

The Need for Vigilance A wise leader must:                                     " …cope not only with present troubles but also with ones likely to arise in future, and assiduously forestall them. When trouble is sensed well in advance it can easily be remedied; if you wait for it to show itself, any medicine will be too late because the disease will have become incurable. As the doctors say of a wasting disease, to start with it is easy to cure but difficult to diagnose; after a time, unless it has been diagnosed and treated at the outset, it becomes easy to diagnose but difficult to cure. So it is in politics. Political disorders can be quickly healed if they are seen well in advance (and only a prudent ruler has such foresight); when, for lack of diagnosis, they are allowed to grow in such a way that everyone can recognize them, remedies are too late                                  ” (Machiavelli, 1999:12). This calls for watchfulness on the part of the leaders

Be Generous and know how to Intimidate when Necessary An act of kindness is a great instrument that wise leaders should possess. It has power to neutralize, disarm and blind people about your suspicious move. To have allies one must be generous. Hence, no matter how kindhearted and effective a leader is, surely, he can never please everybody. A committed leader should not be deterred or despair because of criticisms; even nature is partial in distributing its resources. No matter how you work smart and selflessly for the people, there must be deviants, dissenting voices, cynics, rebels, etc. Therefore, in the face of all these, a wise leader should invoke the power of intimidation when it is necessary because some of these people should not be given a free pace to operate; otherwise, they will mar the collective interest and happiness of the majority. They hate peace and order; they thrive by terror and other counterproductive activities. They bring sorrow, grief, depression

Hybrid Characters It is very difficult for a man to govern a man. Therefore, whoever wants to lead should go the extra miles to obtain some qualities that will distinguish him from others. It is only these uncommon qualities that will make people to follow him and also be obeying his orders.     In other words, a good leader should be Jekyll and Hyde. He has to have qualities of dove and hawk, because the people he leads have two realms of consciousness - good and evil, which they are ready to use when it becomes necessary. In a nutshell, the people he rules are the conglomerate of doves, hawks, lions, and foxes (mixed-bag). Even some have beast and monster-like character. Machiavelli, (trans. 1999: 56-57) has summarized this when he said thus: so, as a prince is forced to know how to act like a beast, he must learn from the fox and the lion; because the lion is defenceless against traps and a fox is defenceless against wolves. Therefore one must be a fox in order to recognize tra

 A Source of Inspiration /> This law looks like more of matter of choice but it is far from that. Whoever that has not been inspired can neither inspire nor influence others. The worst that can happen to any state or organization is to have a depressed and frustrated leader. No wonder Bill Newman noted that the greatest contribution leaders can make to mankind is to use their power in a positive way - to help and inspire others. He should stimulate his teams and subjects. This will help them to see life objectively. The inspirational power is very important in a life of a leader and the people he leads, even if it is a false one. Depressed followers cannot reason well let alone contribute positively for the advancement of their state. Ill-motivated subjects cannot defend their state against internal let alone external aggression. Not only leaders should have a source of inspiration, but also every being who wants to live a meaningful live. The world belongs to the peop

Consistency and Persistence in Action This law is to avoid a government of uncertainty. A good leader should not spit out and lick his spittle; and a man of worth should never get up to unsay what he has said unless it is for the interest of the majority. He should be certain about what he believes and consistent in what he says and does. There is no doubt that true success comes through consistency and persistence in whatever one is doing. The two destroy resistance or obstacles. Every policy of government affects people; some positively, others negatively which will definitely attract mixed reactions. A leader faces everyday pressure, especially from those his policies do not favour.  If he is not determined, he will be pushed left and right by these people. He must remain persistent in his initial decision insofar as it is for the interest of the majority. It should also be noted that the interest of the nobles should not be played with to some extent. If his policy shou

Leaders are the most powerful beings on earth. In other words, all “the powerfuls” are leaders either in the political or business world.  And the most beautiful ladies are after powerful men. Women love power so much that they cannot afford to lose any man that is in power. Men only exercise power, but women enjoy it. One may ask, since women are the source of happiness to many men, how can leaders observe this law? It should be noted that leaders are among the unhappiest beings on earth insofar as they are committed in their duties. True leadership calls for self-denial. That is why we say “uneasy lies the head that wears the crown.” He who has decided to serve others has temporarily sold his happiness to them. Even from their physical appearance one can attest to that if you know committed leaders before they took the task of leadership. An African adage says “the monkey sweats but it is only the hair on its body that deceives the world”. Hence, as a matter of necessity, a lead

"ltr">How They Operate Gladiators operate by first and foremost seeking for alliance. They always need the help of others, especially the notables, whom they believe are dissatisfied or not in good terms with the current government. As soon as they find their fellows and they reveal their secrets to them, the former will feel relieved because they have seen the means of satisfaction. They will now table all they know about the government and chart a way forward on how to discredit it. After this stage they will start living a life of pretense by claiming to represent the interest of the masses or be their mouthpiece. Their aim is to disarticulate the political system and create crisis of legitimacy to the existing government. This leads to the emergence of political gladiators. They are the political dissents and self acclaimed notables that think that their relevance is diminishing and interest is not willingly represented in the present government as they exp

How They Operate Gladiators operate by first and foremost seeking for alliance. They always need the help of others, especially the notables, whom they believe are dissatisfied or not in good terms with the current government. As soon as they find their fellows and they reveal their secrets to them, the former will feel relieved because they have seen the means of satisfaction. They will now table all they know about the government and chart a way forward on how to discredit it. After this stage they will start living a life of pretense by claiming to represent the interest of the masses or be their mouthpiece. Their aim is to disarticulate the political system and create crisis of legitimacy to the existing government. This leads to the emergence of political gladiators. They are the political dissents and self acclaimed notables that think that their relevance is diminishing and interest is not willingly represented in the present government as they expect. They will surely

A Wise Leader should Love the Nobles and like the Masses A leader like Vladimir Lenin of the defunct Soviet Union did not believe solely in the power of the masses despite the fact that he was a communist and a revolutionary. Throughout his life time he maintained this popular phrase: “fewer the better”. More also, a leader like Benito Mussolini, former Italian ruler, believes “that the majority is not necessarily more reasonable than the minority”. The minority he meant here is the nobles. He was an ardent believer of the Trite proverb that says “he who builds on the people builds on mud”. He noted that there are no way the downtrodden, economically disenfranchised masses, and headless crowd will make a stable society. These shared views of these two rulers are not out of sense. This law is a deep blue sea to leaders because, nobody can either rule out the power of the masses or that of the nobles. The demanding question is: which group should a leader ally himself with?

        Social Vigilance Man is a social being who needs social security which leads to the realization of his humanity. The social needs of a man should never elude him. The importance of social security to man cannot be overstated. It is what makes a man a social being. A wise leader should secure his people socially to avoid other socio-political unrest. Armed security exists due to the absence of social security. Armed security which is the perversion of a social security system came into being when the social security systems collapsed under the slave owning society (early feudal system). This was when slave lords failed to provide for and protect the welfare of slaves. For that reason, slaves turned against their masters which made them (the masters) to be prone to attacks by angry slaves. The slave masters therefore, had to arm themselves against socially vulnerable slaves who may devour them.

Political Vigilance In human society, power tussle is endless and he who controls political power controls other powers. The need for political vigilance is very crucial to us more than others. Many eyes are in political power and if not adequately secured it may lead to other insecurities and leakages in other systems. Power is not freely given; it must be fought for even in the ecclesiastical world. After the tussle for power comes the governance by the triumphant party. And those who are defeated more often than not have to fight back indirectly in their bid to discredit the present government. Some may be pretending to be lambs, but wolves. A wise leader should be on guard always and never trust enemies or remove his eyes from them. In a society where there is lack of political vigilance, there will be other security challenges. A good leader should never slumber so that he would be able to monitor his political adversaries on daily basis. He should make use of his enormous

Leaders and Unavoidable Dues People pay more attention to negative issues than positive ones; many have eyes to see the shortcomings of government, but it is only a few that see the strengths. A wise leader should know that no matter how good and effective he is, he can never please everybody. Therefore, criticism, rivalry, false accusation, depression, and sometime outright rejection are part of dues he pays as a leader. No matter how you perform some will vilify you and call you a failure, squirrel, and other demeaning names. That is why Machiavelli as we have noted says that “men in general judge by their eyes rather than by their hands; because everyone is in a position to watch, few are in a position to come in close touch with you. Everyone sees what you appear to be, few experience what you really are”. He also noted that “men worry less about doing an injury to one who makes himself loved than to one who makes himself feared. For love is secured by a bond of gratitude

Kinds/types of political supporters 1. Political Conservatives 2. Political Jobbers 3. Political Deifiers It should be noted that at the onset that all these supporters are powerful political and economical interest cliques.  They lobby in support of their existence and relevance. Each participant seeks to maximize gains and minimize losses. All the gains accrue to their activities; they use them to feather their nests. In other words, they only want to do well not good. They are political merchants. I.    Political Conservatives   The interest of this group of supporters is to maintain status quo. They are those who have achieved their needed economic power, who need a leader that will protect their economic interests. They are the wealthiest groups, comprador bourgeoisies, political money donors, party chieftains; and they have a common interest. Some of them are the captains of industries, importers and exporters of unseen goods. They are members of guardian or ru

How to Avoid Flatterers "Men are so happily absorbed in their own affairs and indulge in such self-deception that it is difficult for them not to befall victim to this plague; and some efforts to protect oneself from flatterers involve the risk of becoming despised. This is because the only way to safeguard yourself against flatterers is by letting people understanding that you are not offended by the truth; but if everyone can speak the truth to you then you lose respect. So a shrewd Prince should adopt a middle way, choosing wise men for his government and allowing only those the freedom to speak the truth to him, and then only concerning matters on which he asks their opinion, and nothing else. But he should also question them thoroughly and listen to what they say; then he should make up his own mind by himself. And his attitude toward his councils and towards each one of his advisers should be such that they will recognize that the more freely they speak out the more accept

Literature Review Literature review is one of the most challenging parts students face in their research works. Some usually do not know where to start. This is due to lack of background knowledge on what literature review entails. This part is suppose to be the most interesting part because it is information seeking section if one understands what literature review revolves around. First and foremost, understand that literature is the general name for printed materials (such as booklets, textbooks, novel, magazines, journals, leaflets, brochures, etc.) that provide information about something. As stated in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), literature reviews are critical evaluations of material that has already been published. Hence, it is an act of examining some available works in order to critically know what other researchers have said on the topic you are researching on. In other words, it simply means studyin

Writing Ethics As stated in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), there are ethical and legal standards in publishing. Therefore, there is a need for total adherent to the ethical and legal rules that guide scientific writing and report. Hence, in the conduct of scientific inquiry, the scientific community detests any act of duplication of publication, plagiarism, self-plagiarism, disguising as a participant, biasness, etc, (APA, 2010). According to the Manual (2010), different scholarly disciplines have different publication styles. But the same basic ethical and legal principles underline all scholarly research and writing. These long-standing principles are designed to achieve three major goals:  To ensure the accuracy of scientific knowledge,  To protect the rights and welfare of research participants, and  To protect intellectual property rights. Another vital issue is the question of consistency. A

Plagiarism As stated in the sixth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), researchers do not claim the words and ideas of another as their own; they give credit where credit is due (APA Ethics Code Standard 8.11). Inline with APA, quotation marks should be used to indicate the exact words of another. Each time you paraphrase another author (i.e., summarize a passage or rearrange the order of a sentence and change some of the words), you need to credit the source in the text. Example: According to Nnamani (2009:69) dependency could be "a situation in which the less developed countries (LDCs) have to rely on developed economies and international economic policy to stimulate their own economic growth”. Or in this order:  Dependency could be "a situation in which the less developed countries (LDCs) have to rely on developed economies and international economic policy to stimulate their own economic growth” (Nnamani, 2009:69).

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This picture illustrates clearly on difference between equity and equality. And what they represent.

Contemporary Basic Concepts in Government and Politics has all needed information one requires to become an expert in government and political analysis.